Our MackSmaTec Wiki offers you the opportunity to look up terms from various (mechanical engineering) sectors quickly and easily. In the selection of terms, we have focused on our four business areas. From abrasives to bowl feeders, we give you an answer to the question: What is that actually?
A
B
BEV - Battery Electric Vehicle
BEV - Battery Electric Vehicleclose
BEV - Battery Electric Vehicle
BEV is the abbreviation for "Battery Electric Vehicle", which has now also become established in German. Alternatively, it is often referred to as a battery electric vehicle or battery electric car. This always refers to a purely electric vehicle that operates entirely without a combustion engine and obtains the energy it needs to run exclusively from a battery installed in the vehicle. In contrast to other electric vehicles, such as the HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle) or the FCEV (Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle), BEVs are therefore often referred to as "pure electric vehicles".
What is a BEV?
A battery electric vehicle is a vehicle that is powered exclusively by battery electricity. Accordingly, it stands in contrast to other so-called electric cars, such as hybrid electric vehicles or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, which often run on a mix of energy sources. The BEV, on the other hand, only has an electric drive motor that receives the energy it needs from a powerful battery. This in turn is charged externally - for example at an energy filling station or at a wallbox at home. Some of the energy provided by the battery is also generated by the vehicle itself: When braking, so-called energy recovery (recuperation) takes place, which ensures that the battery is recharged a little each time the brakes are applied. However, this effect cannot be used to operate the BEV using recuperation alone.
What advantages does the BEV offer?
Fully battery electric cars offer a whole range of advantages. For example, a BEV is emission-free because it runs without a combustion engine. If you also run your battery electric vehicle on electricity from renewable energy sources, you also save large amounts of CO2. Over their entire life cycle, battery electric vehicles have a significantly better balance sheet in terms of greenhouse gas emissions compared to cars with a petrol or diesel engine. In addition, BEVs require much less care and maintenance: there are no more spark plugs or engine oil to change, the brakes are less stressed and a gearbox is also a thing of the past with purely electric vehicles. Another plus point: electric motors not only produce less exhaust fumes, but also a lower noise level. In cities in particular, but also in rural residential areas, this can contribute to a better quality of life.
What are the disadvantages of BEVs?
Although battery electric vehicles offer a number of advantages, they are also repeatedly criticized for various aspects. For example, there are the high energy costs and the consumption of valuable resources involved in the production of the batteries required. In addition, many BEVs still have the problem of their limited range and the temperature susceptibility of the batteries. The long charging times and the sometimes inadequate infrastructure in terms of available charging stations are also repeatedly criticized. However, most of these points of criticism are due to the fact that the development of BEVs is still in its infancy. Experts assume that the already impressive environmental friendliness of the vehicles can be further enhanced by future developments.
C
CAD
CADclose
CAD: Computer-aided design made to measure
The abbreviation CAD stands for the English term computer-aided design, which refers to the somewhat unwieldy-sounding concept of computer-aided design. In simple terms, CAD software enables objects to be designed on a computer using a wide variety of data. Instead of having to draw the object by hand, the entire modeling or even just the design of partial aspects can be carried out on the computer. How narrow or how broad the definition of the term is is a matter of interpretation. CAD (as well as CADD) systems and programs are particularly helpful in the field of technical drawings and technical documentation. They not only ensure greater flexibility and precision, but also help to realize potential savings thanks to faster results.
CAD software: How do CAD programs work and where are they used?
Anyone working in the field of CNC contract manufacturing, for example, can hardly avoid using CAD software. This is because CAD software makes it possible to transfer the design specifications directly to the CNC machine , thereby eliminating numerous intermediate steps. At the same time, transmission errors are eliminated. How exactly CAD software works depends on the respective manufacturer and the area of application. In industrial sectors, for example, CAD programs are used to design models or to check them. CAD can be used to create both 2D and 3D models. Depending on the respective software, these can be checked under real conditions in virtual space. For example, weak points or errors can be identified and rectified before the costs are invested in building the prototypes. Thanks to these extensive application possibilities, practically all industries nowadays rely on CAD: from the automotive industry and special machine construction to medical technology and the packaging industry.
What are the advantages of CAD?
Some of the advantages of CAD, i.e. computer-aided design, have already been mentioned. However, what stands out the most are the time-saving, adaptable and accurate working options offered by the use of CAD software. The identification of errors, adaptation to changing conditions and the immediate storage of all technical data and information relating to the manufacturing process offer greater clarity and faster processing of tasks. In addition, the compatibility of individual systems is also impressive, especially the cooperation between CAD and CNC.
Chaku-Chaku
Chaku-Chakuclose
Chaku-Chaku - work organization model to increase productivity
Chaku-Chaku is a work organization model whose name is taken from Japanese and can be literally translated as "load, load". Alternatively, the term "flow principle" is often used in this country. In industry, work organization models such as the chaku-chaku line aim to achieve greater standardization and improved process control . In the long term, this should result in an increase in productivity in combination with an increase in the profit margin. Chaku-chaku can be understood as an extension or further development of the one-piece flow model .
Chaku-Chaku is a model of flow and series production in which all workstations required for the manufacture of a product are set up in such a way that the distances between them are minimized. This often results in an arrangement of workstations that is reminiscent of a U or an omega in terms of shape. This arrangement makes it possible for a single employee to operate several machines or workstations simultaneously or in parallel , usually only being responsible for loading and unloading the respective machines and transporting the products from one station to the next. The machine itself performs its task without the intervention of the employee. Depending on the complexity, it is also possible to equip a chaku-chaku line with several employees who are each assigned individual tasks. In practice, chaku-chaku models with one to three workers have proven to be successful.
What are the potential advantages of chaku-chaku?
By eliminating long transport routes between individual work stations, time losses in the manufacture of a product are minimized. At the same time, expensive and complex interlinking machines become obsolete. Not only do these no longer have to be purchased, they can even be dismantled in some circumstances. Depending on the product, manual workstations can also be integrated within the Chaku-Chaku line. As the loading and starting of the individual machines at the respective work stations is carried out by the employee(s), machines working at different speeds or slower speeds can be coordinated with each other. This leads to improved time coordination without undesirable losses. In this case, however, it must be taken into account that stations for the intermediate storage of partially finished products must be set up within the chaku-chaku line.
Another advantage of chaku-chaku is the shorter training period for the employees involved in the flow work, who generally only have to cope with a few complex tasks and only have to take care of loading and unloading the machines. There is no need for time-consuming training or the employment of skilled workers. This also saves costs in the long term.
What are the potential disadvantages of Chaku-Chaku?
Some of the advantages of chaku-chaku mentioned above can also be cited as points of criticism from a specific point of view. One of these is the monotony of the work required of the employee, which can lead to highly one-sided stress and corresponding health disadvantages. As working hours are also accelerated in the chaku-chaku line, stress and physical strain are added to this.
At the same time, the absence of trained specialists can also be seen as problematic in the long term. Employees who work in a chaku-chaku line are often trained within a very short period of time and generally do not require any specific training for their work. From the employee's point of view, this is a cause for concern because the wage level falls and it is also difficult to increase wages. From a wage perspective, additional qualifications have practically no effect on the individual's intended activity within the chaku-chaku line. This is precisely why trade unions and works councils often oppose the implementation of the chaku-chaku model.
Composite materials
Composite materialsclose
Together for better performance
Every material has specific properties: while some are very positive and desirable for the corresponding areas of use or application in industry, there are others that are more negative. However, by combining different materials with each other, positive properties can be enhanced and negative factors can be balanced out or completely eliminated. When two materials are combined with each other and the resulting material has different properties to the separate starting materials, this is also referred to as a composite material . Composite materials are being used more and more frequently in the industrial sector as they offer numerous advantages.
What types of composite materials are there?
The list of different composite materials is long and new composite materials are regularly developed. However, different materials are not randomly combined with each other, but are joined together taking various factors into account. The material properties of the materials play a major role, for example. There are ceramic, organic, metallic and polymer materials, which in turn can be used to produce fiber composites, layered composites (laminates), particle composites or even structural composites.
A well-known example of a layered composite material is the laminate. It is made from different layers of various composite materials, which in turn have their own unique characteristics. This layered composite material can be used for various forming elements, for example, or for cladding facades.
The fiber composite material is also widely used. Various composite materials can be used to produce it. The individual properties of each composite material are just as important as the cost factor. Glass fibers, for example, are often used as composite materials due to their low price. Ceramic fibers, on the other hand, are significantly more expensive and are therefore usually only used as composite materials if the composite materials have to withstand high temperatures. Carbon fibers are also extremely popular as composite materials, although they are quite expensive. Thanks to their low weight, they are mainly used in the aerospace industry.
Advantages of composite materials: Why are composite materials needed?
When composite materials are combined with each other, this process usually has a specific purpose. Depending on the subsequent area of use or application of the composite material, various objectives can play a role: For example, materials can be modified in terms of their color or heat resistance. Compounding can also be very successful in terms of impact strength or elongation at break.
Composite materials are now part of everyday life for many of us. For example, fiber composites can be found in buildings, bridges and boats, but also in clothing, furniture and household appliances. Nevertheless, composite materials raise a number of questions and problems. There are a number of challenges, particularly when it comes to recycling and disposal, as composite materials, once joined together, cannot be easily separated later on.
Crimping
Crimpingclose
Crimping
Crimping is a joining process and is often used as an alternative to soldering or welding. Crimping is the preferred method when it comes to making electrical connections. An example of this is the attachment of a plug to a cable, including the correct connection between the wires of the cable and the plug contacts. The main advantage over soldering and welding processes is speed and precision. As a result, crimping has now become widely accepted in large-scale serial production.
How does crimping work?
The functional principle of crimping is relatively simple: pressure is applied to two components to create a plastic deformation between them, which connects the two components together. Special tools are used for this, such as crimping pliers, and the two components are pressed into each other. The connection created during crimping is stable and permanent. In industrial production, crimping presses or automatic cable assembly machines are usually used for crimping. So-called crimping dies are crucial for precise work. These are matched to the components to be connected and have a decisive influence on the type of deformation or crimp connection. If the crimping die does not fit precisely, a permanently stable connection between the two components cannot be guaranteed.
Where is crimping used?
Crimping is not only used in the production of electrical connections, but is also known from more everyday situations. For example, pasta specialties such as ravioli or Maultaschen are crimped. This joining process is also sometimes used in everyday office life, for example when the closing seal on a document is applied using a crimping process. In the industrial sector, HF electronics and telecommunications are increasingly relying on crimp connections. The main advantage of crimping here is that it makes it possible to lay pre-assembled cables without a connector. With the help of crimping, the connector is only attached after the cable has been laid.
What is important when crimping?
In order to create a permanently stable connection between two components during crimping, it is important that the crimping is carried out with sufficient force. Otherwise, the plastic deformation may only occur incompletely, resulting in weak points in the connection. If, on the other hand, too much force is applied, the components may be damaged. An inadequate or unsuitable crimping tool can also be a possible source of error: If the crimping die does not sit correctly on the components to be connected, this can result in faulty or insufficient crimping.
What are the advantages of crimping?
Crimping enables a fast, precise and stable connection between two components. This can be classified as homogeneous, gas-tight and electrically and mechanically safe - provided the crimping is carried out correctly.
D
Die sinking
Die sinkingclose
Contactless machining of the hardest materials
Die sinking is a process that can be classified as spark erosion . This process is based on scientific theories about the eroding force of electrical charges that were established as early as the 17th century. Today, spark erosion in general and die-sinking in particular make it possible to process electrically conductive materials with pinpoint accuracy. If these cannot be processed (precisely) with other techniques, or only insufficiently so, die-sinking EDM can provide a remedy. The main focus of die-sinking EDM is the production of injection molds and die-casting molds.
Die-sinking EDM - metal processing with an electrical charge
Spark erosion is primarily used to process metals that are electrically conductive. Sparks are generated using an electrode tool, which in turn strike the workpiece and cause controlled removal of the material . The entire process takes place in a non-conductive medium, also known as a dielectric. Water or oil is normally used for this. Spark erosion processes are made up of four different variants: drill erosion, wire erosion, disk erosion and die-sinking erosion.
In die-sinking EDM, a specially designed electrode must first be produced. This has the negative shape of the surface that is later to be produced on the workpiece. In the bath filled with the dielectric, the electrode is brought up to a tiny gap of less than one millimeter to the workpiece. Only then does the spark generation begin, which ensures that the material is removed from the surface of the workpiece according to the specified shape. The size of the spark gap, as well as other parameters such as the intensity, frequency or duration of the discharges, have an effect on the removal rate on the workpiece and must be set precisely accordingly.
Advantages and disadvantages of die-sinking EDM
Spark erosion can be used to precisely machine very hard materials. Even complex and very fine surfaces can be realized on the workpiece. The realization of injection moulds and prototypes is therefore one of the most widespread areas of application for die-sinking EDM. Die-sinking EDM also has the advantage that it softens the boundaries of the other variants of spark erosion: if wire erosion, for example, can primarily cut, die-sinking EDM is in some ways more like pressing, in which only the pre-set surface part of the workpiece specified by the electrode is actually machined.
Disadvantages of die-sinking EDM include the costly and time-consuming production of the electrodes and their wear during use. It is often necessary to machine or rework the workpiece in several steps due to so-called burn-off (erosion on the electrode). In addition, the entire process is limited to workpieces that have electrical conductivity.
dpi
dpiclose
dpi - Dot density in the reproduction of images
dpi is an abbreviation and stands for dots per inch. In German, this in turn means "dots per inch" and corresponds to an indication of the so-called dot density. When reproducing images, the dot density is used to indicate how detailed the reproduction is. It is usually the case that a higher dot density or a higher dpi value represents a better level of detail. In addition to the dot density, other factors are also decisive when assessing the quality of a reproduction: the color depth and the sharpness of the image play an important role. The term resolution is often used in connection with the dpi value.
dpi and other units of measurement for dot density
When it comes to dot density, other units may play a role in addition to dpi. For example, there is dpcm or dpc, which stands for "dots per centimetre", or ppi, which corresponds to the unit "pixel per inch". The unit lpi "lines per inch" can also be relevant. Depending on the area for which the dot density is to be calculated, other parameters come into play. The differences between dpi and dpc result from the difference between the metric and Anglo-American measurement systems. However, they basically denote the same thing.
In principle, the difference between the individual units is quickly explained: dpi and lpi are primarily relevant for printing processes, while the unit ppi is used for digital display. Dots refer to specific print dots, while the term pixel refers to digital image dots. If, for example, an image is to be printed on a carrier medium usingthe inkjet process, the dpi value must be specified. This is done with the help of a raster: the number of print dots on the square centimeter or square inch of the selected process is specified. For this purpose, the lpi value is used to determine how many rows of print dots should be displayed on the square centimeter or square inch of surface. The finer the grid, the higher the dot density. However, anyone who thinks that continuously increasing the dpi and lpi will improve image quality is mistaken. In fact, the visual perception of the human eye is limited and a dpi value above a certain limit is not useful.
Best resolution with a view to the dpi value
When it comes to the best possible resolution or the optimum dpi value for printing processes, various factors play a role. As a rule, it is not possible to make blanket statements. For example, it is possible to select a lower dpi value for particularly small print templates than for medium-sized print templates. This is because the human eye automatically compensates for small errors. A very similar effect is noticeable with a large print template: The individual pixels are drawn together by the eye and blur into a large whole. However, this only applies if you are at the right distance from the image. This is often the case with printed posters, for example. The right choice of dpi therefore depends on the individual project. In addition, process-related limitations must also be taken into account. With inkjet printing, for example, values of 600 dpi can be easily achieved, while only lower print resolutions are possible with other printing processes.
Dual Interface
Dual Interfaceclose
Dual interface - card model for more flexibility
When we talk about dual interface, we are usually referring to a specific type of chip card. A dual interface card is the latest generation of security-optimized chip cards, although this type has actually been in circulation for several years. Dual interface cards combine the possibility ofcontactless and contact-based data transmission using a single chip. This makes them much more flexible than the familiar hybrid cards. Below we provide an overview of the different types of chip cards in order to highlight the particular advantages of dual interface cards.
Contact-based or not - dual interface cards as problem solvers
Conventional chip cards are usually equipped with one of two possible interfaces via which data can be transferred. Contact-based chip cards, as the name suggests, require direct (physical) contact with a corresponding reader. Data can only be transferred from the card once this contact has been established. On the other hand, there are usually so-called RFID chip cards, which enable contactless data transmission. High-frequency radio waves or alternating magnetic fields emitted by the tuned reader are used to retrieve the data stored on the chip of the RFID card. For this purpose, the energy is absorbed and decoded by the antenna integrated in the chip. In most cases, the energy is also used to power the chip on the card. Both types of card are in circulation today and each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
For many years, combinations of contactless and contact-based data transfer options have mainly been found on so-called hybrid cards. These have a contact-based interface, such as a magnetic stripe, and an antenna for contactless data transmission. Hybrid cards are therefore characterized by the fact that they can transmit data via two separate interfaces. Dual interface technology thus represents the next step on the evolutionary ladder in a figurative sense: it combines both interfaces in just one chip. It has a chip module that simultaneously has a contact surface and an antenna to enable both types of data transmission.
Advantages of dual interface - chip cards of the new generation
Dual interface cards are already being used in many different areas, as they combine the advantages of previous generations of cards in an impressive way. Conventional contact-based chip cards always carry the risk of contamination of the interface. If this is damaged, the data on the card cannot be read. This in turn leads to complications for the cardholder. Cards with contactless data transmission, on the other hand, are limited in use in many places because the specific reading devices and technologies are not available everywhere. While the latest standards are already commonplace in many large cities and institutions, it is mainly regional and local service providers and stores that still have difficulties with contactless data transmission. Dual Interface provides a solution to both problems: by combining contact-based and non-contact-based data transmission options, Dual Interface for chip cards offers maximum flexibility and functionality in one. This also explains the wide range of applications in which dual interface cards are already being used.
These include electronic identification cards, but electronic driving licenses and health insurance cards are also equipped with dual interface technology. It is highly likely that further areas of application will be developed in the future, as market research analyses have shown that the demand for dual interface cards is constantly growing.
E
Electrolyzer
Electrolyzerclose
Electrolyser
An electrolyser is a technical system that uses electricity to split water (H₂O) into its components hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) - a process known as electrolysis. This key technology is essential for the production of green hydrogen, provided the electricity used comes from renewable sources.
How it works at a glance:
Anode (positive pole): Oxygen is produced here. Electrons are removed from the water molecule.
Cathode (negative pole): Hydrogen is produced here. Electrons are added.
Electrolyte: Conducts the ions between the anode and cathode without the gases mixing.
Power source: Supplies the direct current required for electrolysis.
The gases produced are then separated from the system and can be used in a variety of ways - hydrogen, for example, as a climate-neutral energy source in industry, mobility or for the intermediate storage of renewable energy.
Relevance for smart mechanical engineering:
In modern manufacturing, the electrolyzer plays a central role in sustainable production processes and the transformation towards low-CO₂ industries. Smart mechanical engineering companies such as MackSmaTec are helping to integrate this technology into industrial value chains with modular, scalable systems.
EMC
EMCclose
EMC - Electromagnetic compatibility
The abbreviation EMC stands for electromagnetic compatibility and refers to the ability of technical devices themselves not to emit any intentional or unintentional electrical or electromagnetic impulses/effects, which in turn could influence or interfere with other technical devices. Particularly important: EMC must be guaranteed regardless of whether the device is switched on or off. Accordingly, a machine that is switched off must not cause interference effects in another device, just as a running machine must not. Electromagnetic compatibility is also by definition a reciprocal characteristic. This means that EMC not only excludes active interference, but also passive interference. A technical device therefore has electromagnetic compatibility if it does not influence other devices or allows itself to be influenced.
Various EMC test procedures are used to prevent intentional or unintentional interference between technical devices, which is necessary to ensure the long-term functionality of machines and prevent defects. The legal aspect also plays an important role: the interference of technical devices and equipment can cause major damage if electromagnetic compatibility is lacking. For example, electromagnetic effects can cause the noise level in a television set to increase or the electronics of the device to fail completely. Electromagnetic waves can also be problematic in air traffic, which is why electromagnetic compatibility must be ensured. This is also the reason why cell phones may not be used outside of flight mode in most aircraft. Further examples can be found in industrial plant and mechanical engineering, where numerous different technical devices with a high output are generally used in parallel. In order to be able to work efficiently and safely here, the EMC of the individual devices must be guaranteed.
Legal provisions on EMC
In Germany, the Electromagnetic Compatibility Act, which was revised in 2016, applies to equipment that is either considered to cause electromagnetic interference itself or that can be affected by electromagnetic interference from other sources. With the exception of some devices, such as aviation or military equipment, the law applies across the board. The manufacturer of the respective device, or the person who places the device on the market, must ensure compliance with the EMC law. This is usually done using various test and verification procedures. Various device standards are in circulation for this purpose, each with an associated topic. For example, the generic standard EN 61000-6-4:2007 + A1:2011 deals with emitted interference for industrial areas.
F
Fuel Cell
Fuel Cellclose
Fuel cell
In a fuel cell, a fuel reacts with an oxidizing agent. This produces electrical energy, heat and water as reaction products. Today, fuel cells are mainly operated with hydrogen as fuel , which is why they are often referred to as hydrogen cells. Areas of application include fuel cell heating systems, marine and aerospace applications and rail transportation. They have also been under discussion for a number of years as a drive system for vehicles - fuel cells are intended to help establish climate-friendly road traffic.
What is a fuel cell?
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell whose main task is to generate thermal and electrical energy. No additional external energy is required for this, which is why it is also referred to as "cold combustion". In the fuel cell, hydrogen is fed to the anode via the tank, while oxygen from the ambient air is fed to the cathode. The reaction between the two substances releases thermal and electrical energy without generating nitrogen oxides. The permanent supply of hydrogen and oxygen also enables continuous energy generation. Important: A fuel cell is an energy converter and not an energy storage device - this is the decisive difference to a battery.
Failed areas of application for fuel cells
Fuel cells offer the possibility of self-sufficient energy generation with a particularly low weight. This is an advantage in many areas, which is why the technology is used in the aerospace industry, for example. Many companies therefore also wanted to introduce fuel cells as a mobile power supply for electronic devices. For example, solutions for portable charging devices for smartphones, which could be charged on the move using a fuel cell, were under discussion. However, there have been no actual market launches to date. Experts also assume that the demand for fuel cells to power small electronic devices will probably not prevail. Batteries used instead are already proving to be small, compact and powerful enough.
Fuel cells in motor vehicles
Fuel cells are being considered as an alternative to classic combustion engines. Although battery electric vehicles (BEV) are currently favored in Germany, fuel cells are playing a greater role in e-mobility in Japan. Here, vehicles with fuel cells are considered an important alternative on the road to the energy transition and are on the roads as fuel cell vehicles or fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV ). Compared to traditional electric cars with batteries, vehicles with a fuel cell offer shorter charging times and greater ranges. However, the disadvantages are that green hydrogen in particular is not yet (sufficiently) available to operate fuel cells and that the cost-effective series production of cars with fuel cells is still a long way off.
Advantages of the fuel cell
When it comes to the advantages of fuel cells, it is first necessary to examine what the fuel cell is being compared with. As a drive system in a motor vehicle, the fuel cell offers a number of advantages over diesel engines - the reduced CO2 emissions alone are remarkable. When comparing a fuel cell with a conventional battery, however, the differences are not quite as great: fuel cells offer the advantage of lower weight, but are associated with significantly higher investment costs.
With regard to the automotive industry, it may be an opportunity not to view battery and fuel cell technology separately as competing offers, but to recognize the advantages of possible hybrid forms. However, some experts believe that fuel cells are the better choice from the outset, especially for large, heavy vehicles - the additional burden of heavy batteries can be avoided with their help.
G
Glob Top
Glob Topclose
Glob Top - encapsulation material for microelectronic applications
Glob Top is a flexible and rigid encapsulation that protects exposed components when exposed to UV light, visible light or thermally cured. It is also used to secure integrated circuits or wire connections. Special adhesives are used for this purpose. They are also used for chip-on-board applications or for fixing circuits to glass or PCBs. The plastic potting compounds used for this purpose are available in different viscosities.
Glob Top - protection against external influences
The cabling materials or potting compounds protect electronic components from various external influences in the so-called glob top process:
Dust
moisture
solvents
dirt
Glob Top is also used to protect particularly sensitive components against scratching or mechanical stress. They also reduce the formation of localized elements and protect against internal corrosion. The potting compounds used are generally UV-curing. Depending on the material used, curing can take place in just a few seconds and the sealing of parts or components can be fully automated.
Potting compounds that cure thermally have the advantage that they also cure when there is no light, for example in dark rooms or in shadow areas. As a rule, black-colored glob tops are cured exclusively thermally. They are used as a coating or cover. After curing, the potting compounds can be exposed to temperatures of up to 280° C for a short time, which means they can withstand a reflow process without damage.
Glob tops especially for chips
Glob tops are also used to protect chips. They encapsulate the chip and thus ensure that sensitive wire contacts do not break off. At the same time, they provide protection against scratches, moisture and dust. The chip cards are also protected against corrosion by the encapsulants used. As they are solvent-free and have a high ionic purity, they also reduce the formation of local elements. This makes the chips more durable and reliable.
The frame-and-fill process (dam-and-fill) is very often used to encapsulate chips. In this process, a dam is first drawn using high-viscosity adhesive, which serves as a frame. The frame is then filled with liquid plastic. The frame prevents the material from melting. Instead, it softly encapsulates the chip including the contacts.
Advantages of liquid encapsulation using the Glob Top process
Glob Top is a liquid encapsulation process that aims to protect electronic components with a liquid substance at room temperature. No product-specific tools are required for this. Either one- or two-component encapsulants are used. They are mainly based on epoxy resin, silicone, polyurethane or acrylate and cure thermally. They are usually pre-mixed. Single-component polymer systems are also frequently used. They have the advantage that they set under UV light. The choice of material must be made in such a way that the insulation properties and electronic requirements are taken into account.
The potting material must have a high chemical purity in order to successfully prevent corrosion. Otherwise, fault currents can flow out with short conductor distances. For this reason, adhesives made of epoxy resin are very often used as potting compounds, which cure within a very short time with the aid of UV radiation. This makes them suitable for fully automated and high-volume production. Curing with UV light or visible light ensures particularly fast processing. Thermal post-curing is possible in shadow areas. In practice, modern potting compounds are usually single-component, which means that no mixing is required. They are also free from solvents, cure by LED, are halogen-free, have a low modulus for wire bonding, are free from isocyanate and have a low glass transition temperature. The various materials used for the glob top process also differ in terms of their flexibility and adhesive strength.
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GSM
GSMclose
GSM - digital mobile radio system
GSM is a mobile communications standard that was first used in Finland in 1991. GSM is the abbreviation for Global System for Mobile Communication and is also referred to as 2G. The mobile radio system is not only used in Europe, but worldwide. It is one of three variants of wireless telephone technologies, which also include TDMA and CDMA. GSM technology compresses and digitizes data and then transmits it via a channel with two data streams that have their own time window. The frequency ranges used by GSM are 890 to 915 MHz, 935 to 960 MHz, 1,710 to 1,785 MHz and 1,805 to 1,880 MHz. However, GSM is not only used for mobile communications, but also by other technologies such as General Packet Radio System (GPRS), High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), Long Term Evolution (LTE), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS).
What exactly does Global System for Mobile Communication mean?
GSM is a technical radio standard used worldwide for digital radio telephony and is the most widely used. The standard is not only used for the transmission of telephony, but also for data transmission or for the transmission of text messages. The Global System for Mobile Communications has replaced the analog mobile phone network. A trial operation took place in 1991 and the first GSM mobile networks were launched in the summer of 1992. They operated in the 900 MHz range. A little later, the frequency range around 1800 MHz was added.
GSM has been continuously developed in recent years. This is a standardization process that has been continuously pursued. In 2000, it was handed over to 3GPP, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project. This is a cooperation of several global standardization committees for mobile communications. It is responsible for UMTS, GERAN and LTE. In the coming years, the 2G mobile network will be downsized, but not shut down, as many devices still rely on GSM. The frequencies that become available will gradually be used for UMTS (3G) and LTE (4G).
Technical structure of the GSM network
In general, four components are required for a GSM network:
A cell phone or mobile terminal device that has an antenna and a transmitter and receiver unit. There is also a microphone and a loudspeaker. Power is supplied by a rechargeable battery or the mains. This device can be used to communicate with other participants by selecting them. The selection can be made using voice input or a keypad. The mobile device also usually has a display. The screen not only shows telephone numbers, but also short messages. However, the SIM card is the main component of the mobile device.
A mobile radio transmitter system or base station subsystem is the second component of the GSM network. It can consist of one or more stations, each of which has an antenna and thus supplies one or more radio cells. A central control unit is connected to the base station and monitors the radio connections. It also initiates a cell change if necessary. A conversion unit is coupled to the control units, which is responsible for converting the voice channels compressed by GSM, as well as uncompressed ISDN audio channels, into a compressed audio codec.
The third component in a GSM network is the network switching subsystem or the core network subsystem - the switching units. They are the interface and switching center between the respective cell phone network and the radio network - the Mobile Service Switching Centre. Information about the subscriber is stored within the mobile network by the Visitor Location Register. The Home Location Register, on the other hand, only stores information about subscribers who belong to the clientele of the respective owner of the wireless network. Authentication takes place in the Authentication Center and the serial numbers of the mobile devices used for the contact are optionally registered in the Equipment Identity Register.
The fourth and final system component is the Network Management Center or the Operation and Maintenance Center. This is used to monitor the mobile radio network. This module also controls the central control unit of the mobile radio transmission system, the base station and the Mobile Services Switching Center. All subscribers in a GSM network are assigned and addressed with different numbers. This requires a Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number. The subscriber can be reached worldwide with this number. The subscriber can be found within the radio network using the International Mobile Subscriber Identity. This is also stored on the SIM card. For data protection reasons, however, only one-time authentication is required for the first use. After that, only the Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity is used. Last but not least, there is the Mobile Station Roaming Number. This is used when calls are made outside the routing of the mobile network - so-called roaming.
The use of GSM outside of telephony
Outside of telephone calls, GSM is also used for data transmission. However, the data transmission rate is only 14.4 kbit/s and therefore does not meet the usual standard. This is also the reason why smartphones and tablet PCs now use other mobile networks. This is because more modern technologies enable significantly faster transmission. GSM was originally developed and designed exclusively for voice transmission, which is why the GSM mobile network can only be used for data transmission to a limited extent.
There are now various processes that improve and accelerate data transmission. These include, for example, the X.75 connection protocol, which ensures a faster connection setup, but does not actually improve the speed of data transmission. For this reason, GSM has been further developed with GPRS and EDGE. As a result, data is transmitted in a packet and speeds of 56 kbit/s are achieved with GPRS and 150 to 200 kbit/s with EDGE.
In short, a guilloche is a special line pattern: several lines overlap each other, run parallel, cross each other and thus create a highly complex pattern. Viewed from the outside, guilloches often have an appealing ornamental look, which is why they are often used in art. In connection with securities and chip card security, however, they are a relevant security feature that is largely classified as forgery-proof.
History and development of guilloches
The origin and history of guilloches can no longer be clearly clarified from today's perspective. There are four possible theories on the development of guilloches and their naming. The most common theory is that the guilloches were named after their inventor, the Frenchman Guillot. Regardless of the history of their origin, however, one thing is certain: guilloches were used many years ago as an anti-counterfeiting feature on various documents. Banknotes, securities, identity papers, certificates and passports in particular were printed with the elaborate line patterns, which often take the form of asymmetrically closed ellipses or differently shaped circular paths. In earlier times, a so-called guilloché machine was used for this purpose, in which the patterns were created using engraved printing plates. This alone made it difficult to forge the complex line ornaments without further ado.
Use and creation of guilloches today
Guilloches are still used today as a security-relevant element on chip cards or documents . Depending on the area of application, however, the guilloches are no longer produced using engraved printing plates, but are calculated on the computer using specific databases and software programs. These programs use various line patterns to produce a guilloche. A distinction can be made between parallel lines, known as thread guilloche, wave guilloche and ornamental guilloche. All three elements are combined with each other. Today, there are specific guidelines for the production of guilloches. For example, in its 1991 printing guidelines, the German stock exchange stipulates that guilloches should be designed either as positive guilloches or as negative guilloches. In the case of positive guilloches, colored lines are applied to an unprinted surface, while in the case of negative guilloches, the surface is printed and the lines run unprinted through these surfaces. A distinction is also made between monochrome and multicolored guilloches.
In order for guilloches to be classified as forgery-proof, it is important that the individual guilloches, i.e. line patterns, match each other. The perfect accuracy with which the individual lines cross each other is ultimately what makes guilloches so attractive as a security feature: This accuracy cannot normally be reproduced, as the lines often become frayed, thickened or blurred at the latest at the intersections. In addition, two- or multi-colored guilloches are often developed using a combination of basic and interfering colors, which makes it difficult for even the most modern reading devices to produce a 100% accurate reproduction. This is prevented not least by the fact that guilloches do not allow either an end or a starting point to be identified. Exact recalculation is therefore not straightforward, even for modern software programs. A classic feature that can be used to identify manipulated chip cards are broken guilloches or guilloches with blurred, frayed or unevenly thickened lines. Even if the basic patterns of the guilloches are asymmetrical, they ultimately appear to be perfectly regular, which is why conspicuous features in the course of counterfeiting are immediately obvious. Nevertheless, guilloches are nowadays combined with other security features on chip cards, for example, in order to ensure greater protection.
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Hairpin Technology
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Hairpin technology
Hairpin technology is a winding technology that is used in electric motors, among other things. The technology is named after the plug-in coils, whose angular U-shape is reminiscent of hairpins. Compared to conventional coil winding technology, hairpin technology offers decisive advantages that make it particularly attractive for use in traction motors in electric vehicles .
What is hairpin technology?
Hairpin technology has been on the rise for several years, particularly in the automotive industry. After all, it represents a time and cost-saving option for the production of high-performance electric motors . More specifically, winding technology is used in the stator of the traction motor. This typically contains coils made of electrical conductors (copper wire), which until recently had to be wound in a complex process. Depending on the thickness of the copper wire, this is a labor-intensive and time-consuming process. Thanks to hairpin technology, however, the copper electrical conductors can now be plugged in: Depending on the manufacturing technology, they are inserted into the stator using a compressed air gun, for example. The hairpins then only need to be twisted together and welded.
What are the advantages of hairpin technology?
Hairpin technology offers several advantages over conventional coil winding in the production of stators for electric motors: By accelerating the insertion of the plug-in coils into the stator, the production time of electric motors is reduced enormously, which in turn provides an additional plus on the cost side. In addition, more plug-in coils can be placed and connected in a smaller space. This increases the copper filling level in the stator, which generates a high continuous output.
What challenges does hairpin technology present?
Hairpin technology has proven to be advantageous in many respects for the production of stators for electric motors, but it also presents a number of challenges. The bending (twisting) and welding of the hairpins alone makes the production process complicated and requires innovative solutions. After all, a large number of welding points must be produced in first-class quality . In addition, the larger winding heads of hairpin technology can cause electrical losses.
Hologram
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Hologram - Three-dimensional image for greater security
A hologram is the result of holographic processes and techniques that can be used to create a three-dimensional image or three-dimensional graphics. The degree of three-dimensionality of the image or graphic depends on the respective viewing angle. Holograms are used in very small formats, for example on chip cards, because they are considered forgery-proof and can be produced cost-effectively thanks to modern computer technology.
The basic principle of holographic techniques
Holographic techniques were originally developed to improve the work with electron microscopes. Over time, they were gradually developed further. The principle of holographic techniques can be explained by looking at different types of photographs: In order to be able to produce a black and white photograph, it is important to store the intensity of the incident light on the film. With color photographs, on the other hand, the light frequencies are recorded on the film in addition to the intensity. In order to create a hologram, the so-called phase in the form of interference must be stored in addition to the intensity (for color holograms, the light frequency must also be added). To explain: when coherent light hits an object, this light is reflected and scattered by the object. The refraction and scattering creates a wave field, which in this case can also be described as an object wave. This object wave in turn hits the so-called reference wave. This is the light emitted by the light source, which is still unscattered and unbroken. In this way, interference patterns are created between the two colliding light waves, which are stored on the film. In short, when creating the hologram, the three-dimensional effect is created by recognizing the (three-dimensional) shape of the object based on the refraction of light and transferring it to the carrier medium.
Using these holographic techniques to create a three-dimensional image of an object is relatively complex because not only must the object be completely motionless for several minutes, but the source of the coherent light (laser) must also be positioned absolutely vibration-free. Otherwise, the results will be inaccurate and the resulting hologram cannot be used. Computer-generated holograms are therefore frequently used nowadays. On the one hand, they offer the advantage that they are significantly more accurate and can also be calculated independently of the object. This form of hologram generation is mainly used for graphic images whose shape can be described with mathematical precision. Digital holography also offers faster and more precise options for creating holograms, as the images are reconstructed digitally.
Holograms as a security feature
Holograms are not only used in art or science, but also have their place as a security feature in everyday life. Many chip cards are now equipped with holograms because they prove to be particularly forgery-proof. The hologram on a chip card is produced using a combination of laser technology and multi-layer foils, so the hologram is not simply printed on the card. The advantage: holograms are not only difficult to read, they are also very durable, inexpensive to produce and can be placed anywhere on the card surface.
In practice, genuine holograms are often confused with alternative security features: kinegrams, for example, do not represent three-dimensional images, but instead depict a two-dimensional sequence of movements. Another completely different feature is the so-called lenticular, which is a wobbly image that is only used for impressive effects, but does not itself have any security-relevant characteristics: lenticulars or lenticular images can be easily copied and reprinted.
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Inkjet
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Printing without contact
Inkjet is a modern printing process that does not require any contact between a print template and the object to be printed. The inkjet process is therefore in contrast to thermal transfer, where contact must be established between the special ink film, the thermal print head and the object to be printed. The inkjet process is part of digital printing systems. This means that the print template is transmitted to the printing unit via a computer. This enables quick and uncomplicated changeovers as well as many different print sequences in succession. The second characteristic feature of inkjet printing is the use of inks: These are sprayed from a nozzle onto the material to be printed, using two different methods.
Continuous inkjet process for particularly fast results
The continuous inkjet process is primarily used in the industrial sector and is mainly used when printing results need to be produced in a continuous flow at high speed. The procedure for this inkjet process is quickly explained: drops of ink are continuously sprayed from the inkjet printer's nozzles. This creates a kind of ink curtain, whereby each individual droplet is electrostatically charged. With the help of high-voltage electrodes located in front of the ink curtain, an electric field is generated in parallel. This electric field enables the electrostatically charged ink droplets to be deflected in a controlled manner so that they then hit the substrate in a targeted manner and in accordance with the printing specifications.
Drop-on-demand inkjet process for particularly high resolutions
In contrast to the continuous inkjet process, the main focus of drop-on-demand inkjet printing is not speed, but precision. Instead of an entire curtain of ink, only a drop of ink is sprayed from the print head when it is actually needed according to the specifications of the print template. With this process, resolutions of 600 dpi can be achieved without any problems. This is why this inkjet process is not only used in industry, but also in private households with classic inkjet printers. However, the difference between industrial inkjet printers and ordinary household printers that use this process is clear: while industrial devices contain several thousand nozzles to achieve maximum throughput, home printers only have a few nozzles that have to be moved several times over the substrate.
What are the advantages of inkjet printing?
Some of the advantages that inkjet printing has over other processes have already been mentioned. In particular, contact-free printing is one of the great strengths of this process. This makes it possible to print on even uneven or pressure-sensitive objects with ease. The speed and flexibility of the inkjet process also stand out positively. As no retooling is required and no fixed printing form or stencil has to be used, significantly faster and more versatile printing results can be achieved. In contrast to thermal transfer, this also offers advantages in terms of data protection, as no theoretically readable stencils or printing forms are left behind. Last but not least, the printing costs of the inkjet process are comparatively low.
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Labeling
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Labeling
Labeling includes the labeling of products and objects. In the course of labeling, these are provided with a label on which various details can be written. Labeling is particularly typical for drinks bottles, but also for many other foods: The label not only lists details of the ingredients, but also the best-before date, the barcode, the brand name and much more information. In industrial production, labeling is usually semi- or fully automated. However, labeling can just as easily be done by hand. With the help of small manual labelers, this can be done relatively quickly today. Price labeling in supermarkets is the best-known example of this.
How does labeling work?
Depending on the labeling machine selected, labeling is either manual, semi-automatic or fully automatic. Both automated machines work with labels that are inserted into the labeling machine on large rolls. Depending on the underlying technology, the labels are then applied via a roller, a brush or an extendable pad. The labels are usually adhesive labels, which is why this is often referred to as self-adhesive labelling: in the machine, the labels are removed from the backing film by sliding them over a dispensing edge. The label is then applied to the item to be labeled.
What labeling processes are there?
Various techniques are used for labeling. For example, there is the tamp-on process, in which the label is stamped onto the object to be labeled using the dispensing arm. This allows products of different heights to be labeled because the extendable dispensing arm adapts to the size of the object. This labeling process is used for cartons, for example. If products of the same size are to be labeled, the wipe-on method is recommended. Labeling machines that work with this method have a brush or roller instead of a dispensing arm. The object moves along a conveyor belt under the brush or roller and the label is applied. This variant is faster, but offers less flexibility. It is suitable, for example, for production lines with constant series production in large quantities. Another method for applying labels using a labeling machine is the blow-on method. This is particularly recommended for pressure-sensitive labels because it works with compressed air rather than direct pressure contact. The labels are applied to the object to be labeled using compressed air. A combination variant is tamp-blow labeling, in which compressed air and a tamp are used. Both variants enable labeling at impressive speeds.
What is labeling used for?
Some examples of possible areas of application for labeling machines have already been mentioned: Bottles, food containers or parcels. However, there are also many other areas in which labeling is used: For example, faulty passports are labeled during production to prevent them from entering circulation in the first place. Labeling machines are also used in the assembly sector: labels are used to ensure the traceability or traceability of the product route. Here, labeling often proves to be a cost-effective alternative to lasering. Another possible application is the use of labeling to connect two components: The adhesive dispenser of the labeling machine then contains double-sided adhesive tape, which is used to join two workpieces together.
Laser Cutting
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Laser cutting - micrometer precision and without direct contact
Laser cutting or laser beam cutting is a processing option for different materials. Theoretically, laser radiation is suitable for cutting (almost) all types of materials. In practice, however, laser cutting is particularly useful when high material utilization and straight cut edges that no longer need to be reworked are required.
How does laser cutting work?
The special properties of laser light are responsible for the precise and accurate processing of workpieces using laser cutting. The light generated in the laser beam source of the laser cutting machine is monochromatic and coherent. This means that the light waves of this light beam not only have the same wavelength, but also run parallel to each other and are subject to uniform oscillations. This makes it possible to focus the energy of the laser beam much more strongly. With the help of various techniques, such as light guide cables or deflecting mirrors and focusing optics, the laser beam is aligned in the respective systems and its intensity is amplified.
The bundled laser beam is then directed specifically at the workpiece to be processed. Where the laser light and workpiece meet, the material heats up to such an extent that it liquefies and then vaporizes. A so-called process gas ensures that the removed material is blown out of the resulting kerf. There are three different types of laser cutting, depending on the aggregate state of the ablated material when it is removed from the kerf. In addition to laser beam fusion cutting, there is also laser beam flame cutting and laser beam sublimation cutting. The material is cut by moving the laser beam over the surface of the workpiece or through the material.
What are the advantages of laser cutting?
The advantages of laser cutting are many and varied and are particularly valuable in the industrial sector. Firstly, laser cutting offers maximum flexibility, meaning that it can also be used to process individual workpieces. In addition, laser cutting can always be used on a wide variety of materials in a safe, versatile and efficient manner. Material breakages and splinters are usually avoided, which is particularly impressive from an economic point of view. As the cut edges (depending on the material being processed) are particularly clean during laser cutting, additional costs for any reworking can generally be saved. Another advantage is that laser cutting can be combined with other processes such as punching and nibbling.
For the sake of completeness, the disadvantages of the process must also be mentioned: For example, the procurement costs for laser cutting equipment are relatively high. In addition, a number of factors must be taken into account when it comes to occupational health and safety, as well as the expected gas consumption during operation of the systems.
Laser Marking
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Laser marking
Laser marking is a fast and extremely precise technique that can be used to mark or label various materials in large or small quantities. In contrast to laser printing, laser marking does not involve the application of layers of paint or pigments, but rather an actual (punctual) change to the material. Various techniques can be used for this: Engraving, coloring, ablation, foaming or tempering. The choice of technique for laser marking depends on various factors. For example, the material to be processed determines which technique can be used.
What laser marking techniques are there?
A particularly frequently used technique for laser marking is annealing. This is a process that is used for materials that become discolored when exposed to temperature. A strong laser beam can be used to generate a temperature increase that heats the material and triggers an oxidation process. This in turn creates a discolored surface, i.e. a marking that stands out in color from the rest of the material. This type of laser marking is primarily used to mark metals. Other options for marking components permanently, precisely and quickly include discoloration and foaming. These two laser marking techniques are used for plastics. Discoloration works in a similar way to tempering metals: The laser beam heats the surface of the plastic to such an extent that it begins to change color. During foaming, on the other hand, the surface is completely melted (at certain points). This creates small gas bubbles that remain in the re-solidifying plastic. They initiate a special refraction of light, which makes the marking visible. During ablation and engraving, on the other hand, parts of the respective material are removed. This is made possible by particularly strong laser pulses: these are accompanied by such high temperatures that the material begins to melt, vaporize or decompose, depending on the material. What remains is the laser marking, which is not only visible but can also be felt.
What are the advantages of laser marking?
Alongside labeling , laser marking is now one of the most common methods of marking and coding. There are various reasons for this: As the process is computer-aided, it proves to be particularly precise. Even complex shapes or markings can be implemented without any problems. In addition, laser marking is suitable for a wide range of materials: metals, plastics, glass, wood or even paper and cardboard can be processed using the respective techniques. Another advantage: the results are permanent. Laser marking cannot be wiped off or removed by solvents or abrasion because it is contained in the material itself. What's more, laser marking is a non-contact process. As a result, wear and tear are minimal and all types of surfaces (shapes) can be processed.
Where is laser marking used?
Laser marking is a very widespread process that is used in various areas. Laser marking is currently very well known for the labeling of fruit and vegetables from the organic segment. Here, laser marking helps to avoid packaging materials. Laser marking is also used in assembly and in the OEM sector as a fast and precise way of marking components. In addition, card and passport systems can benefit from the use of laser marking: Laser engraving on plastic cards, which can not only be seen but also felt, is a classic example of this.
Linear Feeder
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Linear conveyor
A linear conveyor is a system from the field of feeding technology that is primarily used for the horizontal transportation of workpieces in various sizes. The linear feeder is therefore in the same series as other components of feeding technology, such as the spiral conveyor or the steep-wall conveyor. In contrast to other systems from this area of conveyor technology, such as a conveyor belt, the linear conveyor can also be categorized as a so-called vibratory conveyor. Accordingly, it uses linear vibrations to transport the workpieces on it. Experts therefore sometimes refer to a linear conveyor as a vibratory machine.
How does a linear conveyor work?
A linear feeder is basically similar to a type of vibrating device, in which workpieces or bulk goods of various sizes are transported from a container to the target point via a linear conveyor using vibration-like oscillations. The conveyor element usually resembles a transport pipe or a transport chute and can be adapted in size to the workpieces to be transported. The conveyor pipe or conveyor trough is always horizontal. This means that the linear conveyor can only transport across one level. It is sometimes possible to tilt the conveyor up or down by up to ten degrees in order to cover smaller vertical distances.
To transport the workpieces, the linear conveyor or the conveyor trough moves with small, jerky movements in the direction in which the transport is to take place and simultaneously upwards. During this movement, the bulk material is carried along, so to speak: It lifts off together with the chute. If the chute then moves downwards and back again, the bulk material remains stationary or falls downwards due to the inertia. It is thus pushed a little further forward with each oscillation. The speed of transportation on the linear conveyor depends on the vibration frequency and can be set individually.
What are the advantages of linear conveyors?
Linear conveyors can be used wherever workpieces need to be transported reliably from A to B. Thanks to individual adjustment options, the transport speed can be individually regulated based on the vibration frequency. At the same time, the linear conveyor can be adapted to workpieces of different sizes: everything from pebble-sized bulk material to goods with a dusty grain size can be transported with the linear conveyor. Overall, the conveyor is considered to be very durable, robust and low-maintenance. In addition, jams or blockages rarely occur, as these can normally be cleared quickly on their own due to the vibrating movements. Transportation on a linear conveyor is also particularly gentle and smooth, even over long distances. Linear conveyors are sometimes interposed as buffer or accumulation sections in complex systems to enable the production chain to run smoothly.
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NC Technology
NC Technologyclose
NC technology: A long-standing standard in machine control
NC technology revolutionized the control of machines for the first time in the 1940s. It was first introduced in the aircraft industry, later it was mainly machine tools that were equipped with NC technology. The abbreviation refers to the concept of numerical control, which makes it possible, for example, to control machine tools via data coding. The codes required for this are stored on a data carrier (e.g. punched tape), which is read by the machine. The advantage: In contrast to manual control of the machine, work processes with NC technology are significantly faster and more precise.
How does NC technology work?
NC technology was considered a widespread standard until the end of the 1970s, but has now been outdated for several years. The advent of CNC technology has made it even easier to control machine tools, maximizing speed and increasing the precision of the work. NC technology is correspondingly much simpler: relatively simple codes are read by the machine from the data carrier and translated into movements. The first machines were only able to follow binary commands, while the latest generations of machines with NC technology were also able to use more extensive controls.
What were the advantages of NC technology?
Because pure NC technology is now considered obsolete, the advantages are limited from today's perspective. Compared to manual control, however, the advantages for the manufacture and production of large quantities of components and workpieces are still clearly recognizable today: thanks to numerical control, the operation of the machines was significantly accelerated. It no longer had to be moved by hand and brought into the correct position, but even complex movement sequences were possible fully automatically. At the same time, for example, workpieces could be produced more precisely and the number of errors was reduced. A third advantage: because the data carriers could be replaced relatively quickly and easily, the machines could be set up for new tasks with little effort.
Nibbling
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Nibbling
Nibbling is a manufacturing process that is used in sheet metal processing. The similarities to punching and shear cutting are unmistakable, as nibbling primarily involves cutting or nibbling simple or complex shapes from a sheet of metal. In some areas, nibbling has clear advantages over punching and shear cutting. Modern CNC machines, special tools and combination machines offer a wide range of applications.
What is nibbling?
In principle, nibbling works in a very similar way to punching, which is why it is often referred to as "punching with repositioning": The material to be processed (sheet metal) is inserted into the nibbler, which is open on one side, so that it lies between the punch and die. Similar to a punch, the punch and die are then brought together and the material is cut. Unlike the punch, however, the nibbler follows suit and literally "nibbles" small pieces out of the material, which is why nibbling is often referred to colloquially as "nibbling". In contrast to punching, with which only a predetermined shape can be punched out of the workpiece, nibbling allows any size and type of shape to be cut out of the material. This is supported by the fact that the sheet can be rotated and moved during repositioning when the punch and die are released from each other.
What are the advantages of nibbling?
Compared to punching, nibbling offers the advantage of greater flexibility: a punch can only cut one specified shape at a time. A certain amount of changeover time is required to cut several different shapes from one material with one punch. With nibbling, these two limitations no longer apply: thanks to the repositioning and variable displacement of the material, all shapes and different sizes can be cut into the sheet during nibbling. At the same time, all changeover times are eliminated. Nibbling also offers many options for combining with other techniques and tools, such as laser cutting or impact shearing.
One disadvantage can be that nibbling often leaves visible marks in the material. They are reminiscent of a kind of ripple pattern, which may have to be removed in a subsequent work step. Furthermore, when nibbling internal cut-outs, it is necessary to pre-drill a hole in order to be able to position the nibbler in the appropriate place.
Where is nibbling used?
There are hand tools for nibbling as well as motor-driven machine tools or special tools, CNC-controlled machines and combination tools. Nibbling is used wherever sheet metal needs to be cut. Examples include the manufacture of computer housings and switch cabinets (often using special tools).
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OCR/OCV
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OCR/OCV - reading plain text with a camera
OCR is the abbreviation for Optical Character Recognition and OCV stands for Optical Character Verification. Translated into German, this means as much as plain text reading or plain text verification. While it used to be necessary to use a specific font for machine reading, this is no longer necessary today. A good example is passports, which have a machine-readable line and therefore had to be printed with exactly this font. In recent years, OCR systems have been further developed so that things are now possible that would have been unthinkable some time ago. Today, OCR can be used reliably and without training on documents thanks to the standardization of Windows fonts. It is even possible to read narrow proportional fonts. A modern OCR system is able to recognize the format of a text so that even multi-column documents can be processed automatically.
What is OCR actually?
Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that converts various documents into searchable and editable files. This can be PDF data, paper documents or digital images, for example. If you want to extract relevant information from a brochure, a newspaper article or even a contract in order to reproduce it in Word format or edit it in an Excel file, for example, you cannot simply use a scanner. This is because the scanner only outputs a copy or image of the document. This is a collection of pixels, i.e. pixels that can be white, black or colored. Of course, tables or raster graphics are also possible.
OCR software is required to read and process these documents. It turns documents, PDFs or digital images into words and sentences. This allows information to be stored in a readable and searchable format. Further processing is also possible.
Text recognition in practice
Most optical input devices, such as digital cameras, scanners or faxes , can only output raster graphics. This means that the dots arranged in the columns and rows are colored differently, the so-called pixels. In text recognition, however, letters must also be recognizable as letters. This is because they must be identified in order to subsequently assign them a numerical value, which is assigned to them after text encoding. For example, using Unicode or ASCII.
In German, the terms OCR and automatic text recognition are used as synonyms. However, this is incorrect , because technically speaking, OCR describes the recognition of individual characters into separate image parts. This is preceded by recognizing the structures by first separating text blocks from the graphic elements. The line structures are then recognized and individual characters are separated. The decision as to which text character is involved is made using certain algorithms that take linguistic context into account.
In the past, it was necessary to use specially designed fonts for automatic text recognition. Everyone probably remembers the bottom line of a check form. This font was designed in such a way that the characters could be distinguished and read by a special OCR reader very quickly and without much computing effort. The font used was called OCR-A and was characterized by the fact that very similar characters, such as the zero and the capital O, were printed in such a way that they were no longer similar. OCR-B, on the other hand, resembled a non-proportional and sans serif font. OCR-H, on the other hand, was modeled on handwritten letters and numbers. As modern computers have become more and more powerful and there are now improved algorithms, it is now possible for printers to recognize normal fonts and even handwriting.
What modern OCR software can do
Modern text recognition software is now able to carry out a context analysis. With the help of ICR (Intelligent Character Recognition), the result can be corrected and a character that was originally recognized as the number 8, for example, is automatically converted into a B because it is within a word. 8 letters thus become letters.
Text recognition is mainly used by larger companies, for example when it comes to automatically processing incoming mail. Documents have to be sorted in the inbox, for example. However, it is not necessary to analyze the entire content for this task. Instead, it is usually sufficient to differentiate according to rough characteristics. This can be, for example, a very specific layout of invoices or forms, a company logo or other characteristic features. Classification is then carried out using pattern recognition, which refers to the defined areas and not to the entire document.
Advantages of OCR
OCR is primarily used to save time and costs when creating a wide variety of documents. This also applies to further processing and reuse. With OCR software, a paper document is scanned so that it can later be edited in a Word document or an Excel file, for example, and then forwarded. It is also possible to take text passages from journals and books and use them in your own documents, working papers and studies without having to type out the quote or text passage.
Even when on the move, it is now possible to capture text from timetables, posters or banners using a simple cell phone camera and use the resulting information in a document. The same of course also applies to text passages from books and paper documents if a scanner is not available. The software can also be used to create searchable archives. Modern programs now work so quickly that data conversion only takes a few seconds.
Pick and place can be roughly translated as "pick up and place". This is one of the most frequently performed work steps in manufacturing processes. Pick and place tasks usually occur several times and in different sections within a production chain. Pick and place tasks can be carried out manually as well as partially or fully automated. Manual execution is becoming increasingly rare today, even for small production runs. One of the reasons for this is that manual pick and place tasks are time-consuming and therefore not very efficient. In contrast, partially or fully automated pick and place processes prove to be significantly faster, have a lower error rate and are therefore many times more economical overall.
Where do pick and place tasks occur?
The topic of pick and place is extremely diverse. Basically, all tasks in which an object is picked up and placed elsewhere can be described as pick and place tasks. The repacking or sorting of materials or goods would therefore fall into the pick and place area, as would the assembly of PCBs with SMD components. However, pick and place tasks are often further subdivided and specified in their designation. For example, they are alternatively referred to as palletizing or handling. Pick and place tasks can be found in all industrial sectors - from the automotive industry to the food industry.
What options are there for automated pick and place tasks?
Pick and place tasks are usually automated with the help of robots. These can be designed in different ways and thus specified for different pick and place tasks. Most pick and place robots essentially consist of a type of arm that performs the monotonous tasks in a set rhythm and at a precisely defined speed. The manufacturers of pick and place robots can tailor them to the specific requirements of the tasks from the outset. Alternatively, flexible pick and place robots can be reprogrammed and retooled. As the pick and place robots are equipped with numerous sensors, they can even handle complex pick and place tasks within a very short time. For example, it is possible for a pick and place robot to sort a predefined number of different chocolates from a selection of chocolates and place them in a box of chocolates.
What are the advantages of pick and place robots?
When employees perform monotonous tasks day after day, this is not only not conducive to motivation and performance, but can also have health consequences for the employees. At the same time, the manual handling of pick and place tasks is unprofitable from an economic point of view because precision and a fast pace cannot be guaranteed in the long term. A pick and place robot provides a remedy for all these problems: it not only performs the pick and place tasks assigned to it faster and more precisely, but also does so at a constant speed. Convincing repeat accuracy is important in this context. In addition, pick and place robots can be individually designed and therefore used in different environments. Modern models stand out particularly positively, as they are usually equipped with an easy-to-understand operating program and can be retooled if necessary thanks to intuitive software.
Plastic Welding
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Plastic welding - joining process for plastics
Plastic welding is a joining process in which two plastic components are permanently joined together. Plastic welding is an alternative to other joining processes such as gluing or soldering. Plastic welding is primarily used for plastics that cannot be glued together or can only be glued together insufficiently. This applies, for example, to polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyethylene (PE). It is important for the connection using plastic welding that the plastics have thermoplastic properties. This means that they can be melted (repeatedly) and then solidify again. Different processes are used for plastic welding depending on the material and the target specification. In addition, certain ambient temperatures must be maintained depending on the plastic to be welded.
The different types of plastic welding
Depending on the way in which the heat acts on the plastic to be welded, different types of plastic welding can be distinguished. In industrial series production, hot plate welding is primarily used. In this welding process, the heating and joining processes can take place separately, as the two joining partners are first heated separately using a heating element and only then joined under pressure after the heating element has been removed. Alternatively, infrared welding is often used in industrial production: in this form of plastic welding, the surfaces of the joining partners to be processed are heated using infrared radiation. Only then is the connection made. A third variant of plastic welding used in industry islaser welding. Here, the joining partners are heated locally using laser light. This process has the advantage of a very low, but at the same time very accurate heat input. As a result, components are damaged less and a particularly high welding speed is achieved. Laser beam welding and infrared welding are also sometimes combined with each other. If one of the two joining partners has a rotatable shape, rotational friction welding is also an option: as one joining partner rotates while the other remains stationary, heat is generated due to the friction, which in turn enables welding. Other variants of plastic welding include ultrasonic welding, vibration welding and circular welding.
Advantages and disadvantages of plastic welding
For many plastics that cannot be permanently bonded together, there is no alternative to plastic welding. It is important to ensure that the welding temperature is suitable and that the plastics to be joined are of the same type. As each plastic has its own chemical composition, it is generally not possible to create permanent joints between joining partners made of different plastics using plastic welding. In addition, any pre-treatments must be carried out on the surfaces of the joining partners during plastic welding. Particular attention must also be paid to the correct welding temperatures: while polystyrene requires a temperature of 270°C to 310°C, polypropylene only requires a temperature of between 230°C and 280°C. If the temperatures during plastic welding exceed the permitted value, the plastics can burn, which not only leads to permanent damage to the component, but can also impair the reliability of the connection between the joining partners.
The advantages of plastic welding clearly include the fact that the various processes can be used to create permanent connections between components where bonding is not a reliable solution. In addition, many plastic welding options offer short working times, precise results and low stress on the components. This applies in particular to laser welding as a variant of plastic welding.
Press Brakes
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Press brakes - sheet metal processing with high precision
A press brake is often also referred to as a folding bench or press brake and is a machine that can be used to produce large and bent sheet metal with high precision. A possible alternative to the press brake is the swivel bending machine, which works on a similar principle but is primarily used for smaller batch sizes.
How does the press brake work?
The die bending press works according to a very simple principle: The die bending press consists of a press beam that is lowered from top to bottom onto a die. A punch is attached to the head of the press beam, which is pressed onto the sheet metal located between the die and the press beam. This lifts the sheet metal to be bent upwards and creates a bending angle. It is possible to produce several bends in one workpiece, but the sheet metal must be removed from the machine and repositioned. The press brake remains unchanged during the repositioning process, which minimizes the time required even for the production of complex bending profiles.
What are the advantages of press brakes?
Admittedly, press brakes also have disadvantages, such as the fact that tools have to be changed for many work orders, which takes time and therefore reduces efficiency. All the more positive, however, is the fact that press brakes can be used in many different ways. This process is used, for example, to process sheet metal parts that can later be used for truck bodies, cladding parts or components for large machines. The latest generation of press brakes can also be equipped with a CNC control system. This allows even more precise control options to be implemented and saves valuable working time at the same time. Modern press brakes are also designed to the highest standards in terms of safety: Light barriers and safety lasers help to prevent accidents and reduce the risk of injury.
Punching
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Versatile in sheet metal processing
Punching is a separation process that most people are familiar with from their private or professional lives: A hole punch, with which small circles can be punched out of a piece of paper, works according to this principle. With the help of complex punching machines, punching is also used in industry, where it is primarily used in sheet metal processing. Punching is a common process within the production chain in medical and food technology as well as in the electrical and automotive industries. In addition to sheet metal, other materials such as cardboard and corrugated cardboard or other non-metals can also be punched. However, fundamentally different equipment and machines are used here.
How does punching work?
Punching as part of sheet metal processing works according to a very simple principle: the basic structure of a punching machine consists of a punch (inner die) and a die (outer die). The latter is provided with a hole into which the punch fits exactly. If the material to be processed is placed between the punch and die and pressed together, the corresponding shape is punched out of the material. In addition to this possible structure, there are other variations of punching machines that can be used depending on the purpose.
Punches and dies can be exchanged depending on the desired punching, making it possible to punch out different shapes. A distinction can also be made between stroke and rotary punching processes. It is also possible to punch using CNC punching machines. This happens, for example, wherever production needs to be particularly flexible and where laser cutting, a common alternative to punching, is not possible or not economically viable.
Punching is a very simple process and is mainly used to press certain shapes (punchings) into the workpiece or to process the outer edges of this workpiece . A closely related process is nibbling, which is mainly used for finer or more complicated punching shapes. The advantages are mainly to be seen in the speed: Even larger quantities can be produced just as precisely as cleanly within a very short time. Furthermore, punching offers the advantage that it is a mechanical process. This means that, unlike laser cutting, the workpiece does not have to be heated, which often results in thermal changes.
However, it should be borne in mind that the preparations for punching can be quite (time-) consuming because the respective punching knives and dies have to be precisely matched. In addition, the wear on the punching knives, which can wear out quite quickly depending on the material being processed and then have to be replaced, is extremely high and must be taken into account as a cost factor. Nevertheless, from an economic point of view and in terms of precision, punching is generally the method of choice for sheet metal processing, especially for larger series. CNC punching machines also eliminate longer changeover times, as quick-change tools with a plug-in system are available. In addition, individual processing steps can be linked, which saves additional time and therefore costs.
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Radar
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Radar
Radar technology is widely used in industry. It can be used to monitor and control production facilities and machines more efficiently. Radar or radar technology is used, for example, for level and wear measurements, but also for measuring layer thicknesses as well as distance and dimension measurements. In order for the radar-based measuring devices to provide clear and reliable information, an optimally coordinated interplay of frequency and bandwidth is required. The challenge here is that the radar must always provide reliable results, even under difficult or changing conditions.
How does a radar work?
The way a radar works is quite simple to explain. A radar is normally a transmitter (antenna) and receiver (sensor) in one. The antenna emits pulses in the form of electromagnetic waves. When these hit an object, they are reflected and bounced back as an echo. These reflected waves are picked up by the transmitter and analyzed: The echo can be used, for example, to draw conclusions about the distance or size of the object. The more sophisticated the radar technology, the more comprehensive the information that can be obtained using this measurement technology. State-of-the-art radar scanners are even able to measure through optical obstacles. This is particularly important in industry: for example, innovative radar technology makes it possible to measure fill levels through packaging, while distance meters work reliably even in the presence of smoke, dust or other visual obstructions. For the best possible spatial resolution and measurement results, the frequency and bandwidth of the microwaves must be as high as possible. Systems that can be individually adapted to the specific task parameters have therefore proved particularly successful.
Where is radar technology used?
Outside the industrial sector, radar technology is mainly used in shipping and air traffic. In industry, radar is used in various forms and areas of application. Level measurement using radar technology is particularly well known: the measuring device emits electromagnetic waves and is reflected back by the product (solid or liquid). The device then uses the echo to determine the distance from the sensor to the product and can thus indicate the specific fill level. Another prominent area of application for radar technology relates to safety in the collaboration between man and machine: potential safety hazards arise wherever industrial robots and humans meet without barriers. Radar monitoring can even register moving objects and precisely locate them in space by means of precise distance measurement. Machine safety functions linked to these radar devices can help to consistently prevent accidents. Other areas in which radar technology and radar measurements are used include Locating faulty areas or foreign objects in products, measuring wear, measuring workpieces, measuring layer thickness, testing weld seams and much more.
Advantages and disadvantages of radar measurements
Radar measurements can only provide reliable results if they are adapted to the intended tasks. The acquisition costs for radar measuring devices are sometimes higher than those of other non-contact measurement technologies. However, compared to optical sensors, such as laser scanners, radar technology has the clear advantage that it also works under difficult visibility conditions. Especially in the industrial sector, where dust, smoke and the like are the order of the day, radar measuring devices provide significantly more reliable results. Further advantages: Compared to other measuring methods, such as X-rays, radar technology is completely harmless to health, requires very little maintenance and is uncomplicated to operate.
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Shrinking
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Shrinking or shrink-fitting
Shrink-fitting is a joining process based on the principle of thermal expansion. It is used particularly frequently in mechanical engineering and can be combined with other joining processes, such as cold expansion or expansion. Shrinking or shrink-fitting creates seamless, durable joints that can withstand even the most extreme stresses. Accordingly, in many industrial sectors, shrinking is proving to be a worthwhile alternative to joining processes that involve material damage (e.g. soldering, screwing or welding).
How does shrinking or shrink-fitting work?
The industrial joining process of shrinking is based on a simple physical principle: certain materials expand at high temperatures and contract again when cold. In order to join two components together by shrinking, one of the two components is heated to the degree at which it expands. The expanded and heated component is then pulled over the unheated component and cooled. As the temperature drops, the previously heated component shrinks to its original size and encloses its joining partner permanently and firmly. This connection can only be released again when the component is heated again. It is important to note that only the outer, enclosing component is heated. If the enclosed component also expands, the shrink joint will not be released. This is usually achieved with the help of induction heating, as this can heat the components with pinpoint accuracy and without damaging the material
Where is shrink-fitting used?
Shrink-fitting is normally only used in conjunction with metal parts. As it must be ensured that the material properties remain stable at the same level after expansion and cooling, other materials are not suitable for shrinking. Shrink-fitting is often used to join rings, gears, shafts or pipes. In addition to mechanical engineering, special areas of application for this joining process can also be found in shipbuilding, the automotive industry and aerospace engineering. A classic example is the manufacture of railroad wheels, where the wheel tire and shaft are joined permanently and stably by shrink-fitting. Many tools are now also equipped with shrink-fitting technology: In this way, for example, attachments can be precisely fastened in the chuck.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of shrink-fitting?
Shrinking or shrink-fitting is a relatively simple joining process that does not require any additional aids such as adhesives. Furthermore, there is no material damage. The connection created during shrinking is stable and permanent, but can also be released by reheating the joining partner. However, the process is only suitable for metals that can expand when heated without losing any of their material properties. It is therefore essential to ensure that the correct temperatures are maintained when shrinking. Moreover, uniform heating is crucial to prevent different degrees of expansion and thus material distortion.
Spiral Conveyor
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Spiral conveyors
Spiral conveyors are an important component of conveyor systems in the industrial sector. Similar to linear conveyors or steep-wall conveyors , they can be integrated into a complex conveyor system or used as an independent component for the vertical conveying of different types of goods. In addition to conveying bulk goods, spiral conveyors are primarily used for sorting small piece goods such as screws or turned parts. As a rule, spiral conveyors are custom-made products that are specially designed for the respective application. As part of a sorting system, spiral conveyors can therefore only ever be used for precisely defined goods. With the help of conversion measures, however, spiral conveyors can be converted so that they can also sort similar components.
How does a spiral conveyor work?
Spiral conveyors are also known as vibratory bowl feeders, parts conveyors, bowl feeders or vibratory bowl feeders. These names can be traced back to the specific design of the bowl feeder and its mode of operation : The upper sorting section of a bowl feeder is shaped like a pot, which consists of a firmly connected cylindrical spiral, the so-called helix. With regard to the helical conveyor track or bowl of the spiral conveyor, a distinction is also made between cylindrical, stepped and conical shapes.
The way it works is relatively simple: an electromagnetic vibratory drive causes the conveyor track of the bowl feeder to vibrate. This vibration initiates a throwing motion in the object lying on the conveyor track, which moves the object in the desired direction. This is also referred to as micro-throwing. Depending on whether specific sorting elements are installed, the objects are also aligned on the conveyor track. This is important if the bowl feeder is used as a sorting conveyor. The sorting elements - also known as baffles - are usually installed by hand. Depending on the design of the bowl feeder, it is possible to make modifications that allow the baffles to be adapted to changing transport objects.
Depending on the production chain in which the bowl feeder is integrated, a number of other parameters can be individually regulated in addition to the baffles. For example, it is possible to change the conveying speed by changing the vibration strength or vibration frequency. Various additional elements can also be connected, for example to regulate the temperature. In addition to spiral coolers, which cool down the goods in the spiral conveyor, there are also heating spiral conveyors, which increase the temperature of the items to be conveyed.
What are the advantages of spiral conveyors and where are they used?
Smaller spiral conveyors in particular are purchased in industrial areas because of their sorting function. This increases the cycle time in downstream work processes, as the small components required are conveyed directly in the correct position. They are used in the automotive industry, medical technology and also in the plastics and electronics industries, among others. However, it is important to prevent signs of wear on the bowl feeder from the outset. This can be achieved, for example, by applying special coatings to the spiral conveyor .
Steep Conveyors / Steep Wall Conveyors
Steep Conveyors / Steep Wall Conveyorsclose
Inclined conveyors/inclined wall conveyors
Inclined conveyors or inclined wall conveyors are technical devices from the field of feeding technology that are used for the vertical transportation of bulk goodsand smaller workpieces. The term bunker elevator is often used in this context. Depending on the structural design of the conveyor belt, variants such as buckling conveyors or corrugated edge conveyors are used. In addition, the inclined conveyors can be used primarily as an element of feeding technology or can also take on additional sorting tasks. The inclined conveyors can pick up and transport workpieces made of different materials and in different sizes, as individual adaptations are possible in many areas. This allows the conveyed goods to overcome even large height distances reliably and with little friction.
How does an inclined conveyor work?
Unlike a linear conveyor or a spiral conveyor, for example, an inclined conveyor does not work with the help of vibrations, but instead transports the goods using a conveyor belt. For this purpose, the workpieces are first placed in a hopper, which is located at the foot of the conveyor belt, so to speak. From there, screws, nuts, coins and similar bulk goods are moved piece by piece onto the conveyor belt and transported upwards. Profiles or troughs are attached to the conveyor belt for this purpose. These hold the goods on the belt.
What are the advantages of an inclined conveyor?
The inclined conveyor or steep-wall conveyor enables safe and reliable vertical transportation even on steep inclines of sixty or seventy degrees. Its design can be individually adapted to the bulk material to be transported and to other parameters. For example, it is possible to equip the inclined conveyor with a mobile hopper and/or adapt the conveyor belt to the nature of the bulk material. While light goods can be transported on a plastic belt with cross profiles, a plastic or steel link chain is used for heavier parts. Customization is also possible and sometimes even necessary with regard to the hopper volume, the transport speed and the design of the cross profiles on the conveyor belt. If necessary, steep conveyors can be combined with other systems from the field of sorting and feeding technology, such as a linear conveyor.
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Thermal InkJet
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Thermal inkjet printing
The thermal inkjet process is a variant of inkjet printing that is used in industry, among other things, to transfer a print template to a carrier medium quickly, precisely and without contact. Thermal inkjet is a drop-on-demand printing process in which - as the name suggests - drops of ink are only sprayed from the nozzles when they are actually needed according to the print specification. An alternative to thermal inkjet is the piezo process. However, while the ink drops are ejected from the nozzle in the piezo process according to the principle of mechanical displacement , thermal inkjet works by heating the ink inside the nozzle.
How does thermal inkjet work?
Heating elements that can reach temperatures of up to 300°C are installed in the nozzle of a thermal inkjet printer. The heating elements heat the ink inside the nozzle to above its boiling point. When the ink changes its aggregate state and becomes gaseous, the volume expands and high pressure is generated. This pressure in turn ensures that the ink droplet is pressed out of the nozzle and the ink lands on the substrate. The heating element then regulates the temperature downwards again and the ink returns from a gaseous to a liquid state. This changes the pressure ratio again and the resulting vacuum ensures that new ink is automatically sucked into the nozzle.
The thermal inkjet process was developed relatively simultaneously by HP and Canon in the 1980s. Since then, many other manufacturers of inkjet printers have joined them and thermal inkjet has become the modern standard, particularly in the industrial sector.
What are the advantages of thermal inkjet?
As a variant of the inkjet printing process, thermal inkjet is particularly impressive due to the speed and precision of the results. Due to the high resolution, the depth of field when printing images and photographs on chip cards, for example, is very impressive. The fact that several thousand nozzles can be linked together in modern thermal inkjet printers results in a very short processing time. In addition, the technology behind thermal inkjet is now much cheaper to produce than print heads that use the piezo process. The components are not only smaller, but also static and therefore less susceptible to defects. In addition, the maintenance requirements for thermal inkjet are significantly lower than for other printing processes. On the other hand, however, it must be noted that specific criteria must be taken into account when selecting the ink used. For example, they must have a relatively high heat resistance. The composition of the ink from different pigments must also be precise, as individual pigments can influence the evaporation process (boiling point) with thermal inkjet.
Thermal Transfer
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Thermal transfer - long-lasting thermal printing process
Thermal transfer is a thermal printing process in which printing results are achieved through the punctual application of heat. Alternative names are TTO (thermal transfer overprinter) or thermal transfer printing. The basic principle of thermal transfer printing is easy to explain: There is a thermal print head on which small heating resistors are arranged like on a comb. Accordingly, the thermal print head is often referred to as a thermal comb. In thermal transfer, a color foil is positioned between the object to be printed and the thermal print head. This is provided with special ink layers. The heating elements in the thermal print head are then activated at the points where color is to be transferred from the coated film to the object to be printed. This initiates a melting process on the film so that the ink is released from the film and transferred to the object to be printed. Multi-colored printing results are possible, whereby either several print heads are used or the individual colors are applied one after the other.
What are the advantages of thermal transfer printing?
Thermal transfer printing offers several advantages over other thermal printing processes. The print results from directthermal printing are usually particularly sensitive to light and temperature. This means that they can fade or become completely illegible over time. It is possible to achieve longer-lasting print results by applying a special protective coating to the paper or selecting a special thermal paper, but this is associated with higher costs.
With thermal transfer, the print results are permanent from the outset. In addition, the object to be printed on does not necessarily have to be made of paper. Theoretically, thermal transfer makes it possible to print on many different (3D) objects. This is why thermal transfer is primarily used when, for example, serial numbers are to be applied to certain components that are to be permanently durable. A corresponding thermal transfer printer can also be individually programmed and always produce new results. Thanks to the high resolutions of up to 600 dpi and more, even photos can be printed using thermal transfer. Furthermore, this is a particularly cost-saving printing method because only very small quantities of ribbon are required. One disadvantage, however, is that the printouts remain legible on the thermal transfer ribbon used. This can lead to complications in terms of data protection.
Where is thermal transfer used?
Thermal transfer or thermal transfer printing processes are widely used today. Just like inkjet or thermal inkjet, thermal transfer is used to individualize bank cards. The process is also used in connection with permanent labels and serial numbers or when printing photographs. In order to make optimum use of the potential versatility of thermal transfer, the corresponding machine equipment is often part of larger industrial robots. This means that three-dimensional objects can also be printed during production.
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Tightness
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Tightness
Tightness or impermeability is the property of material structures to be impermeable to certain substances, gases, liquids or even radiation. This is a relative concept, as there can be no absolute tightness. Instead, tightness must always be assessed in relation to the material being tested, the structure and the penetrating "substance". For example, a water pipe proves to be leak-proof until the pressure inside becomes too high - then the pipe may crack and water will leak through. On the other hand, the water pipe is probably not impermeable to radiation from the outset. A leak test is used to determine whether and to what extent a material structure is leak-proof. Tightness tests are part of everyday life, especially in production.
Why is tightness so important?
In production, leak tests are indispensable as part of quality control. The non-destructive test method is sometimes also referred to as a leak test and is used for systems and components in a wide range of industries. Testing the tightness of a component or complex system can be important for various reasons: for example, a leak test during the production process can prevent cost-intensive reworking of components at a later date. In addition, the use of components and systems that are not sufficiently tight can lead to repair costs later on. Furthermore, many industries have specific standards and legal guidelines for the tightness of components - a leak test is also essential in order to comply with these. The best example: If, for example, pipe systems in a refrigeration system are not sufficiently tight, gas or water can leak out. This can not only cause considerable damage, but may also lead to accidents or personal injury.
How do you test for leaks?
Leak tests are used in a wide variety of production processes - which is why there are specific leak test methods depending on the application, which are usually implemented as vacuum or overpressure methods. The relevant specifications can be found in DIN EN 1779. Typical examples are
Worker water bath test (bubble test)
Water bath test with ultrasonic sensor
Differential pressure test
Ultrasonic detection
Leak test with test gases
It is crucial that the leak test of a test specimen is already integrated into the production process. This prevents expensive reworking in series production from the outset. However, to ensure that the test methods actually deliver reliable results, the devices used for this purpose should be regularly maintained and readjusted if necessary.
In which industries does the tightness of components and systems play a role?
Nowadays, leak testing can be recommended for (almost) every serial production process. Industries that require leak-tight components and systems include the automotive sector, shipbuilding, medical and laboratory technology, the aerospace industry, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and many more. Other measurement technologies used in industrial series production include torque, X-ray and radar.
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Wire Bonding
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Wire bonding – a thermocompression process for electronic components
The thermocompression process or thermocompression welding is a fusion welding process that is used in particular for the permanent joining of sensitive electronic components such as wire bonding. Alternative welding processes, which also enable two components to be permanently joined together, are often out of the question in this area for various reasons. One example of this is the laser welding process, which generally generates such high temperatures that electronic components such as chips can be damaged. Thermo-compression welding is different: in principle, it is similar to arc stud welding because it is also a pressure welding process. In thermo-compression welding, however, the contact points on the components themselves are not melted; instead, a wire is used, especially for electronic components. This is where the specific name of the sub-task area "wire bonding" comes from. How exactly the process works and the advantages and difficulties that need to be taken into account are explained below.
How thermocompression welding works during wire bonding
The following explanations relate primarily to thermocompression welding, which is used in the production of electronic components. This is also referred to as wire bonding, which primarily refers to the process in which chips are contacted with the respective housing. To do this, a fine gold wire is first fed through a capillary nozzle and heated from below using a controlled heat source. The heating melts the wire into a ball, which is then pressed onto the contact point during the first weld. This contact point is also known as the bond island. In order to make a connection with another bonding island or contact point, the capillary nozzle is moved upwards again and brought to the next contact point in a semicircle. There, it is pressed down again and the wire is then cut off. Only fine gold wire is used for thermocompression welding in connection with electronic components or wire bonding. This is processed at temperatures of around 350°C. The advantage of gold wire is that it is resistant to oxidation processes and is therefore suitable for the production of electronic components. Theoretically, it would also be possible to use other materials, but this would only be possible with great technical effort, which is usually not justifiable from a cost perspective.
Advantages and disadvantages of wire bonding as a variant of thermocompression welding
When manufacturing electronic components using thermocompression welding, there are a number of advantages and disadvantages compared to other processes and methods. Compared to the laser welding process, thermocompression welding or wire bonding has the disadvantage of material and tool wear. On the other hand, the lower working temperatures generated or required during thermocompression welding are more beneficial to the often sensitive components. In addition to the low heat input, other advantages include the short heating times and the fact that the parts joined by thermocompression welding do not suffer any deformation. The strength and durability of the joint is also a positive feature of this process.
Wire EDM
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Wire erosion - cutting process with high precision
Wire erosion, like die sinking, is an ablative manufacturing process that works on the principle of spark erosion. In this context, it is often also referred to as wire cutting, wire EDM or wire erosion. The machining process is used in industrial manufacturing processes, for example as an alternative to milling. Wire erosion is characterized by the fact that electrically conductive materials can be machined with the highest precision and considerable cutting speed. The main focus of the range of tasks in wire erosion is the production of prototypes as well as cutting and punching tools.
How does wire erosion work?
Three elements are of particular importance in wire EDM: wire electrode, dielectric bath and workpiece. Both the workpiece and the wire electrode are in the dielectric bath during the cutting process. This is produced using a non-conductive liquid, for which either deionized water or special erosion oil is used. In some cases, a coaxial jet is used as an alternative to the dielectric bath. The wire is usually made of brass, but can also be made of copper or steel. Wire electrodes with a diameter of between 0.02 mm and 0.33 mm are normally used for wire EDM.
The exact process ultimately takes place in three phases: First, the wire electrode and the material to be machined are placed at a clearly defined distance from each other in advance. It is important that both are charged differently (workpiece = anode and wire = cathode). An electric field is now generated with the aid of electrical voltage pulses (ignition phase) - precisely at the point where the distance between the wire and the workpiece is smallest. The electrically charged particles are accelerated in this field, resulting in a visible spark. This generates a great deal of heat, which causes the dielectric to vaporize and the material of the electrode and workpiece to melt. As a result, a gas bubble forms, which in turn fills with plasma (discharge phase). A pulse pause (pause phase) interrupts the current supply, causing the bubble to implode. The molten material is detached from the workpiece and transported away with the dielectric. Depending on the machine, the processes from ignition phase to pause phase are repeated up to 100,000 times per second. This generates temperatures of up to 40,000°C.
What are the advantages of wire erosion?
Today, wire erosion is a standard process in shaping production. This is due to the various advantages it offers: for example, it is possible to cut extremely complex shapes and very small radii without any problems. Extremely hard materials such as titanium can be processed just as easily as particularly thick workpieces. Even extremely thin parts can be cut with ease, as there is no contact between the workpiece and the tool. Wear is minimal, while at the same time there are practically no reworking costs. After all, wire EDM is known for its perfect cutting edges.
Nevertheless, not all materials are suitable for wire EDM: They must be conductive and of high quality. Otherwise, the cutting results may not be convincing. The materials should also be insensitive to water, as they must remain permanently in the dielectric, especially during longer processing times (risk of rust). Also important: The three phases of wire EDM must be 100% coordinated with each other or with the material to be processed. Incorrect settings can lead to unclean results or wire breakage.
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X-ray
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X-ray
X-raying for the purpose of material testing is often also referred to as X-ray testing or radiographic testing. X-raying is considered non-destructive material testing and is used to test the quality of components. The imaging process provides information about so-called volume defects in a material or component. These can be cracks, blowholes or inclusions, for example. A distinction can be made between conventional X-ray and modern digital X-ray inspection.
How does X-raying work?
X-raying in the course of radiographic testing is based on the same principle as medical X-raying at the doctor's: X-rays are characterized by short wavelengths that can penetrate matter at high frequency (energy). Put simply, the denser the material, the more difficult it is for the rays to penetrate it. Conversely, this means that materials with a lower density can be penetrated more easily by radiation. This is utilized for material testing as follows: The component or material to be tested is irradiated with X-rays. Behind the test specimen is a suitable film that absorbs the penetrating radiation. This produces a readable image with different light/dark colors: The darker the image is colored, the more radiation was able to penetrate the test specimen at this point. Light areas, on the other hand, indicate that only little radiation was able to penetrate these areas. This means that the test specimen is thicker or denser in these areas. In digital X-ray inspection, the results are read out using detectors and suitable software.
Where is X-ray used?
X-ray or X-ray testing is used for material testing in many different industries. In addition to testing the density and thickness of materials, it is also particularly suitable for checking weld seams - inclusions and the like can be clearly detected. Industries in which X-ray is used as a standard measuring method include the automotive industry, aviation and shipbuilding, as well as mechanical engineering companies. X-ray methods are also increasingly used in the food industry. Here, X-ray inspection is primarily used to detect contaminants in foodstuffs before they reach the market.
Advantages and disadvantages of X-rays
Just like other testing methods, X-rays also have various advantages and disadvantages. One major advantage of radiographic testing is that concealed components can be inspected. The inspection immediately reveals the size and shape of the defective area, so that any repairs can be carried out more quickly and directly. However, the downside is that X-rays can only be used for materials with a limited thickness: for example, X-rays can only penetrate steel with a maximum thickness of 300 mm and light metal up to 400 mm. For copper, it is only 50 mm. In addition, the amount of training required is sometimes high and it may be necessary to invest in appropriate radiation protection.
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